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A–Z REFERENCE

Linux Dictionary

✎ Binh Nguyen ∑ 21,142 entries A 27 sections

One of the largest open Linux/UNIX/POSIX glossaries — packages, jargon, kernel concepts, distros, and history.

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About this dictionary

Linux Dictionary

Version 0.16

Author: Binh Nguyen

<linuxfilesystem(at)yahoo(dot)com(dot)au>

2004-08-16

This document is designed to be a resource for those Linux users wishing to seek clarification on Linux/UNIX/POSIX related terms and jargon. At approximately 24000 definitions and two thousand pages it is one of the largest Linux related dictionaries currently available. Due to the rapid rate at which new terms are being created it has been decided that this will be an active project. We welcome input into the content of this document. At this moment in time half yearly updates are being envisaged.

Please note that if you wish to find a 'Computer Dictionary' then see the 'Computer Dictionary Project' at http://computerdictionary.tsf.org.za/

Searchable databases exist at locations such as:

http://www.swpearl.com/eng/scripts/dictionary/ scripts/dictionary/

(SWP) Sun Wah-PearL Linux Training and Development Centre is a centre of the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, established in 2000. Presently SWP is delivering professional grade Linux and related Open Source Software (OSS) technology training and consultant service in Hong Kong. SWP has an ambitious aim to promote the use of Linux and related Open Source Software (OSS) and Standards. The vendor independent positioning of SWP has been very well perceived by the market. Throughout the last couple of years, SWP becomes the Top Leading OSS training and service provider in Hong Kong.

http://www.geona.com/dictionary?b=

Geona, operated by Gold Vision Communications, is a new powerful search engine and internet directory, delivering quick and relevant results on almost any topic or subject you can imagine. The term "Geona" is an Italian and Hebrew name, meaning wisdom, exaltation, pride or majesty. We use our own database of spidered web sites and the Open Directory database, the same database which powers the core directory services for the Web's largest and most popular search engines and portals. Geona is spidering all domains listed in the non-adult part of the Open Directory and millions of additional sites of general interest to maintain a fulltext index of highly relevant web sites.

http://www.linuxdig.com/documents/dictionary.php documents/dictionary.php

LINUXDIG.COM, "Yours News and Resource Site", LinuxDig.com was started in May 2001 as a hobby site with the original intention of getting the RFC's online and becoming an Open Source software link/download site. But since that time the site has evolved to become a RFC distribution site, linux news site and a locally written technology news site (with bad grammer :)) with focus on Linux while also containing articles about anything and everything we find interesting in the computer world. LinuxDig.Com contains about 20,000 documents and this number is growing everyday!

http://linux.about.com/library/glossary/blglossary.htm http:// linux.about.com/library/glossary/blglossary.htm

Each month more than 20 million people visit About.com. Whether it be home repair and decorating ideas, recipes, movie trailers, or car buying tips, our Guides offer practical advice and solutions for every day life. Wherever you land on the new About.com, you'll find other content that is relevant to your interests. If you're looking for "How To" advice on planning to re-finish your deck, we'll also show you the tools you need to get the job done. If you've been to About before, we'll show you the latest updates, so you don't see the same thing twice. No matter where you are on About.com, or how you got here, you'll always find content that is relevant to your needs.

Should you wish to possess your own localised searcheable version please make use of the available "dict", http://www.dict.org version at the Linux Documentation Project home page, http://www.tldp.org/ The author has decided to leave it up to readers to determine how to install and run it on their specific systems.

An alternative form of the dictionary is available at:

[http://elibrary.fultus.com/covers/technical/linux/guides/Linux-Dictionary/ cover.html] http://elibrary.fultus.com/covers/technical/linux/guides/ Linux-Dictionary/cover.html

Fultus Corporation helps writers and companies to publish, promote, market, and sell books and eBooks. Fultus combines traditional self-publishing practices with modern technology to produce paperback and hardcover print-on-demand (POD) books and electronic books (eBooks). Fultus publishes works (fiction, non-fiction, science fiction, mystery, ...) by both published and unpublished authors. We enable you to self-publish easily and cost-effectively, creating your book as a print-ready paperback or hardcover POD book or as an electronic book (eBook) in multiple eBook's formats. You retain all rights to your work. We provide distribution to bookstores worldwide. And all at a fraction of the cost of traditional publishing. We also offer corporate publishing solutions that enable businesses to produce and deliver manuals and documentation more efficiently and economically. Our use of electronic delivery and print-on-demand technologies reduces printed inventory and saves time.

Please inform the author as to whether you would like to create a database or an alternative form of the dictionary so that he can include you in this list. Also note that the author considers breaches of copyright to be extremely serious. He will pursue all claims to the fullest extent of the law.

Copyright 2003 Binh Nguyen

Trademarks are owned by their owners.

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2; with no Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".

Table of Contents
Source and pre-formatted versions available
1. Linux Dictionary
    Punctuation
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
    R
    S
    T
    U
    V
    W
    X
    Y
    Z
A. About the Author
B. Contributors
C. Disclaimer
D. Donations
E. Feedback
Bibliography
F. GNU Free Documentation License
    F.1. PREAMBLE
    F.2. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
    F.3. VERBATIM COPYING
    F.4. COPYING IN QUANTITY
    F.5. MODIFICATIONS
    F.6. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
    F.7. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
    F.8. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
    F.9. TRANSLATION
    F.10. TERMINATION
    F.11. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
    F.12. ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

Source and pre-formatted versions available

The source code and other machine readable formats of this book can be found on the Internet at the Linux Documentation Project home page [http:// www.tldp.org/] http://www.tldp.org/ The latest version of this document can be found at [http://cvsview.tldp.org/index.cgi/LDP/guide/docbook/ Linux-Dictionary/] http://cvsview.tldp.org/index.cgi/LDP/guide/docbook/ Linux-Dictionary/

Appendices

Appendix A. About the Author

Binh Nguyen was born, 26 March 1983, Melbourne, Victoria. He studied at St Josephs Marist Brothers College, North Fitzroy until receiving a scholarship to St Kevin's College, Toorak in 1998.

He is currently a university undergraduate studying computer science and physics at the University of Melbourne. His main interests in each area are in Operating Systems and Quantum Mechanics respectively.

His background is strongly biased towards science and mathematics. Nonetheless, he does have an appreciation for the arts, humanities and sport. A reasonably proficient musician (flute), he is currently pondering whether he should complete his musical studies to obtain a diploma so that he can teach. In high school, he was a member of the athletics, basketball, football, cricket and swimming squads. He speaks English predominately but is also able to communicate in Vietnamese and French. When younger he also possessed the ability to communicate in Chinese and Italian.

Although brought up as a Buddhist and studying at Catholic/Christian schools all his life as well as studying scripture during his final year of high school he considers himself an atheist.

At this moment in time, he works part-time as a (commercial) researcher/ developer on Linux related projects with his current focus being on software distribution mechanisms.

Two of his technical documents have been incorporated into the Linux Documentation Project ("Linux Dictionary" and "Linux Filesystem Hierarchy", [www.tldp.org/guides.html] www.tldp.org/guides.html). Furthermore, they are being used as reference books in at least ten universities around the world (University of Southern Queensland (Australia), Universidad Michoacana (Mexico), Hong Kong Polytechnic University (Hong Kong), Universidade de Sao Paolo (Brazil), University of Southern California (United States of America), University of Wales Swansea (United Kingdom), University of Ulster (Ireland), Universität Duisburg-Essen (Germany), Universidad Rey Juan Carlos (Spain), Insituto Superior Miguel Torga (Portugal), and Universiti Sains Malaysia (Malaysia)). As well as this, he is also a Development Lead and Project Administrator of the "Computer Dictionary Project" [http:// computerdictionary.tsf.org.za/dictionary/index.html] http:// computerdictionary.tsf.org.za/dictionary/index.html which is being supported by the Shuttleworth Foundation.

He has published articles at linux.com, linmagau.org, desktoplinux.com, newsforge.com, linuxtoday.com, linux.org, pclinuxonline.com, tuxreports.com, etc.... and has a keen interest in the latest innovations in science and technology.

The author's homepage is at, http://geocities.com/linuxfilesystem/

Appendix B. Contributors

* Martin Wheeler.

* Dale Rogers for participating in coverage testing.

* Anthony E. Greene for writing a program to help sort the dictionary into alphabetical order.

* Machtelt Garrels for writing a template program which allowed me to write a program to convert the original text file to Docbook.

* Chris Karakas for general troubleshooting.

* Greg Ferguson for general help in publishing this document.

* Andrew Laird for participating in coverage testing.

* Jason Hounam for participating in coverage testing.

* Ahmed Tanvir for participating in coverage testing.

* Dan Richter.

* Emma Jane Hogbin.

* Geoff Farrell.

* Neil Eagle.

* Rodolfo J. Paiz for advice in regards to maintaining this document.

* Ruth A. Kramer for advice in regards to maintaining this document.

* Saqib Ali for help in converting this document to various other formats.

* Scott Baust.

* David Horton.

* Kevin Solan.

* Que Anh.

Appendix C. Disclaimer

No liability for the contents of this document can be accepted. Use the concepts, examples and other content at your own risk. As this is a new edition of this document, there may be errors and inaccuracies that may of course be damaging to your system. Proceed with caution, and although this is highly unlikely, the author does not and can not take any responsibility for any damage to your system that may occur as a direct or indirect result of information that is contained within this document.

Naming of particular products or brands should not be seen as endorsements. You are strongly recommended to make a backup of your system before major installation and adhere to the practice of backing up at regular intervals.

Appendix D. Donations

If you would like to make a donations towards this project please use Paypal, https://www.paypal.com

Appendix E. Feedback

Further revisions of this document will be dependent upon user response. Any feedback on the content of this document is welcome. Every attempt has been made to ensure that the instructions and information herein are accurate and reliable. Please send corrections, comments, suggestions and questions to the author Binh Nguyen, linuxfilesystem(at)yahoo(dot)com(dot)au with the subject heading of Dictionary. There is, however, no guarantee of a response.

All trademarks and copyrights are the property of their owners, unless otherwise indicated. Use of a term in this document should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.

The author would appreciate and consider it courteous, notification of any and all modifications, translations, and printed versions.

Bibliography

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[FOE] Faculty-of-Education, Faculty-of-Education.

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[TLDPAPACHEHOW] Daniel Lopez Ridruejo, 2002, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, Apache Overview HOWTO .

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[TLDPSMBHOW] David Wood, 2000, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/SMB-HOWTO.html SMB HOWTO .

[TLDPRCSHOW] http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/CVS-RCS-HOWTO.html RCS HOWTO .

[TLDPEMACHOW] EMACS HOWTO .

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[TLDPVOIPHOW] Roberto Arcomano, 2002, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/VoIP-HOWTO.html VoIP Howto .

[TLDPIPMASQHOW] David Ranch, 2003, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://en.tldp.org/HOWTO/IP-Masquerade-HOWTO/ Linux IP Masquerade HOWTO .

[TLDPLINMODHOW] Sean Walbran, 2001, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Linmodem-HOWTO.html Linmodem-HOWTO .

[TLDPNISHOW] Thorsten Kukuk, 2003, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/NIS-HOWTO/ The Linux NIS(YP)/NYS/NIS+ HOWTO .

[TLDPDNSHOW] Nicolai Langfeldt, 2001, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/DNS-HOWTO.html DNS HOWTO .

[TLDPFIREHOW] Mark Grennan, 2000, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/DNS-HOWTO.html Firewall and Proxy Server HOWTO .

[TLDPFTPHOW] Matthew Borowski, 2000, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/FTP.html FTP mini-HOWTO .

[TLDPFRAMEBUFFERHOW] Alex Buell, 2000, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/FTP.html Framebuffer HOWTO .

[TLDPLDAPHOW] Luiz Malère, 2004, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/LDAP-HOWTO/ LDAP Linux HOWTO .

[TLDPGRASSHOW] David Hastings, 1997, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, The Geographic Information Systems: GRASS HOWTO .

[TLDPDOSEMUHOW] Rahul Sundaram, 2002, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/DOSEMU-HOWTO.html The dosemu HOWTO .

[TLDPBZIP2HOW] David Fetter, 1999, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Bzip2.html Bzip2 mini-HOWTO .

[LINDIC] Binh Nguyen, 2002-2005, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/LDP/Linux-Dictionary/ Binh Nguyen's Linux Dictionary .

[TLDPAUTOMOUNTHOW] Rahul Sundaram, 2002, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Automount.html Automount mini-Howto .

[TLDPBEOWULFHOW] Kurt Swendson, 2004, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Beowulf-HOWTO/ The Beowulf HOWTO .

[HUANGUCD] Jimmy Huang, Unix Command Dictionary .

[firstlin] First Linux, http://www.firstlinux.com/guide/index.shtml Linux Guide .

[LWNDIST] http://www.lwn.net/Distributions The LWN.net Linux Distribution List .

[WHATIS] 2000 - 2005, TechTarget, http://whatis.techtarget.com/ What is? .

[TECHTARGETCLI] 2000 - 2005, TechTarget, Command Line Interface .

[DARPA] DARPA, http://www.darpa.mil/ Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) .

[FOLDOC] 1999, FOLDOC, FOLDOC Dictionary Definition of 'Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency& .

[TIPPETTQUICTOURFS] Matthew Tippett, A Quick Tour Of the Linux Filesystem .

[CID] Bryan Pfaffenberger, 1995, QUE Corporation, USA, QUE's Computer & Internet Dictionary (6th Edition).

[RUTESF] http://rute.sourceforge.net Rute-Users-Guide .

[ESSSYSADMIN] Aeleen Frisch, 1995, O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., USA, Essential System Administration.

[KADOKEV] pages.ripco.com, [http://pages.ripco.com:8080/~kadokev/ kadokev.html] kadokev .

[HACKDICT] http://www.robertgraham.com/pubs/hacking-dict.html http:// www.robertgraham.com/pubs/hacking-dict.html .

[GLOSSDIST] Arun-Kumar Tripathi and Robs John Muir, 1998, Claremont High School, [http://www.cusd.claremont.edu/www/computing/doc/intro/ netterms_glossary.html] Glossary of Distance Education and Internet Terminology .

[MSGANS] http://www.msg.net/kadow/answers/a.html www.msg.net .

[RUNLEVELS] /usr/share/doc/sysvinit/README.runlevels.gz.

[INITRDTXT] Werner Almesberger and Hans Lermen, 2000, publishername, /usr/src /linux/Documentation/initrd.txt.

[MAKETUT] 1998, Opus Software, Inc., The Makefile (Tutorial) .

[OXLINDOC] Oxblood Linux Document .

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[LINPROGMAN] Richard Verhoeven and Michael Hamilton, 2000-2004, www.fifi.org, http://www.fifi.org/cgi-bin/man2html?initrd+4 Linux Programmer's Manual .

[QUICTOURLINFS] Matthew Tippett, 1997, www.linuxsa.org.au, A Quick Tour Of the Linux Filesystem .

[NETINFOARPA] [http://public.csusm.edu/public/guests/history/netinfo/ arpa.html] public.csusm.edu .

[WHATBOURNESHELL] 2000 - 2005, whatis.techtarget.com, Bourne shell .

[LJFSSTD] Garrett D'Amore, 1994 - 2005, SSC Publications, Inc., The Linux File System Standard .

[MELLINFS] Anthony Awtrey, 2000, Melbourne Linux Users Group, Inc., Linux File System .

[MILUFLLINFS] http://www.mil.ufl.edu/linuxhelp/linuxfilesystem.pdf www.mil.ufl.edu .

[NSASELIN] http://www.nsa.gov/selinux/doc/slinux/node57.html www.nsa.gov .

[LINNOWFS] http://www.linuxnow.com/tutorial/fs/fs.html www.linuxnow.com .

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[PROCTXT] Terrehon Bowden, Bodo Bauer, and Jorge Nerin, /usr/src/linux/ Documentation/filesystems/proc.txt.

[LFAQWA] David Merrill and Robert Kiesling, Linux Frequently Asked Questions with Answers .

[LINSYSSECUR] Scott Mann and Ellen L. Mitchell, 2000, Prentice-Hall, New-Jersey, Linux System Security (The Administrator's Guide to Open Source Security Tools).

[XFREE864L] Aron Hsiao, 1999, QUE Corporation, USA, XFree86 For Linux (Uncommon Solutions for the Technical Professional).

[CIGl] Manuel Alberto Ricart, 1999, QUE Corporation, USA, Complete Idiot's Guide to Linux (Second Edition).

[LIONONLIN6] John Lions, 1996, Peer-to-Peer Communications Incorporated, USA, Lions' Commentry on UNIX (6th Edition with Source Code).

[LSAG061] Lars Wirzenius, 1998, The Linux Documentation Project, TLDP, The Linux System Administrators Guide (Version 0.6.1).

[TYSP24] Sriranga Veerararaghavan, 1999, SAMS Publishing, USA, Teach Yourself Shell Progamming in 24 Hours.

[MELSDPT] Zoltan Somogyi and Les Kitchen, 2002, The University of Melbourne, Software Development: Principles and Tools.

[ALPG] Ashton Mills, 2001, ACP Publishing Pty Ltd, Australia, The Advanced Linux Pocketbook.

[QUINLANFHS] Daniel Quinlan, 1996-2004, Daniel Quinlan, [http:// www.pathname.com/fhs] Filesystem Hierarchy Standard .

[GOOCHLDFAQ] Richard Gooch, 2002, Richard Gooch, Linux Devfs (Device File System) FAQ .

[SARUPLFSE] Mayank Sarup, 1998-2004, FreeOS Technologies (I) Pvt. Ltd., http://freeos.com/articles/3102/ The Linux filesystem explained .

[WARRENEPROC] Trevor Warren, 1998-2004, FreeOS Technologies (I) Pvt. Ltd., http://freeos.com/articles/2879/ Exploring /proc .

[RDISTHP] 1992-2005, Magnicomp, http://www.magnicomp.com/rdist/ RDist Home Page .

[ACPI] 2004, acpi.info, http://www.acpi.info/ Advanced Configuration & Power Interface .

[ZAPP] year, Zapping, http://zapping.sourceforge.net/ Zapping .

[LIRC] firstname surname, lirc.org, http://www.lirc.org/ Linux Infrared Remote Control .

[3DFXHOWTO] Bernd Kreimeier, 1998, gamers.org, The Linux 3Dfx HOWTO .

[MPLAYER] Alex Beregszaszi, freshmeat.net, [http://freshmeat.net/releases/ 119440/] MPlayer .

[EGP] 2000 - 2005, TechTarget, Exterior Gateway Protocol .

[IGP] 2000 - 2005, TechTarget, [http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/ sDefinition/0,,sid14_gci214018,00.html] Interior Gateway Protocol .

[3DWM] http://www.3dwm.org 3dwm .

[KERNUPENV] Brian W. Kernighan and Rob Pike, 1984, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, The UNIX Programming Environment.

[HEATHNUPB] Steve Heath, 1998, Butterworth-Heinemann, Great Britain, Newnes UNIX Pocket Book.

[KWAIKSLC] Nazeeh Amin El-Dirghami and Youssef A. Abu Kwaik, 2000, QUE Corporation, USA, Suse Linux Installation and Configuration.

[TOBLERIL] Michael J. Tobler, 2001, New Riders Publishing, Inside Linux.

[SIEVERLIAN2] Ellen Siever, 1999, O'Reilly & Associates Inc., CA, USA, Linux in a Nutshell (2nd Edition).

[UCOLSE] Allan Smart, Erik Ratcliffe, Tim Bird, and David Bandel, 1999, QUE Corporation, USA, Using Caldera OpenLinux (Special Edition).

[WIKIWHAT] 2002, wiki.org, http://wiki.org/wiki.cgi?WhatIsWiki What Is Wiki .

[TTEFILE] 2000 - 2005, TechTarget Whatis-Extentions, Every File Format in the World .

[RH80RPM] Redhat, http://www.redhat.com/ Redhat 8.0 RPM .

[RH9G] Redhat, http://www.redhat.com/docs/glossary/ Redhat-9-Glossary .

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[HCKLEX] Robert Graham, 1998-2000, Guardian Digital, Inc., [http:// www.linuxsecurity.com/resource_files/documentation/hacking-dict.html] Hacking Lexicon .

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Appendix F. GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.2, November 2002

Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

F.1. PREAMBLE

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others.

This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software.

We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.

F.2. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work under the conditions stated herein. The "Document", below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as "you". You accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law.

A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into another language.

A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them.

The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.

The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.

A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a format whose specification is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque".

Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors for output purposes only.

The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text.

A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title" of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a section "Entitled XYZ" according to this definition.

The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning of this License.

F.3. VERBATIM COPYING

You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.

You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display copies.

F.4. COPYING IN QUANTITY

If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other respects.

If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages.

If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the public.

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.

F.5. MODIFICATIONS

You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:

A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.

B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five), unless they release you from this requirement.

C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher.

D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.

E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices.

F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.

G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice.

H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.

I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.

J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the "History" section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.

K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications", Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein.

L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.

M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version.

N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements" or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.

O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.

You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a standard.

You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.

The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.

F.6. COMBINING DOCUMENTS

You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History" in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements", and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections Entitled "Endorsements".

F.7. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.

You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.

F.8. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.

F.9. TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title.

F.10. TERMINATION

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

F.11. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

F.12. ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page:

Copyright (c) YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the "with...Texts." line with this:

with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation.

If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software.